The Yellow Emperor: A Mythic Saga

The Yellow Emperor: A Mythic Saga

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Huangdi, a descendant of the Shaodian tribe bearing the surname Gongsun and known by the given name Xuanyuan, was endowed with an extraordinary spiritual brilliance from the moment of his birth. As an infant, he spoke with clarity; in his early years, his wit and perceptiveness shone through; and as an adult, he was renowned for his honesty, diligence, and an expansive vision that allowed him to discern the essence of all matters.

During Xuanyuan’s era, the descendants of the divine Shennong had fallen into decline, and the feudal lords were incessantly warring, oppressing the common people. Lacking the strength to subdue these rebellious chieftains, the Shennong clan could do little. In response, Xuanyuan set about training his forces and honing his martial prowess, venturing forth to campaign against those lords who refused to pay homage. Only then did the various chieftains come under his sway. Yet among them, Chi You proved the most ferocious — an adversary beyond the reach of any conventional conquest. As the Yan Emperor sought to subjugate the lords by force, they all turned to Xuanyuan for guidance. Seizing the moment, Xuanyuan cultivated his virtues, reformed his military, and studied the shifting rhythms of the seasons, while pioneering agriculture and soothing the people’s hardships. He measured the lands, tamed wild beasts such as bears, wolves, pumas, and tigers, and eventually engaged the Yan Emperor in fierce skirmishes on the outskirts of Banquan — emerging victorious after several grueling battles. When Chi You instigated rebellion and refused to submit to the mandate of the Yellow Emperor, Xuanyuan mobilized the allied armies of the feudal lords and, in the open fields near Zhuolu, fought a decisive battle in which Chi You was captured and slain. Henceforth, all the lords revered Xuanyuan as the Celestial Sovereign, supplanting the old Shennong lineage — this was the origin of the Yellow Emperor.

Wherever dissent persisted, the Yellow Emperor marched forth to quell it, conquering one region after another and forging paths by cleaving mountains and opening valleys; he never tarried long enough in one place to settle permanently. His journeys took him eastward to the East Sea, where he ascended both the singular Munshan and the majestic Taishan; westward to the barren lands of Kongtong, upon which he scaled the formidable Jitou Mountain; southward along the banks of the Changjiang, where he reached Xiong and Xiang Mountains; and northward, where he expelled the Hunzhou tribe, arriving at Fushan to confer seals of authority with his fellow lords — at the foot of Zhulu Mountain, he founded a capital. Constantly on the move, wherever his armies marched he established military encampments for defense. In his system of offices, every title was prefixed with the character “Yun” (cloud), and his troops were collectively known as the Yun Army. To oversee the various vassal states, he appointed two principal inspectors, whose task was to supervise the conduct of all the feudal lords. In those days, order prevailed across the nations, and thus the rites and sacrifices to the mountain deities and river spirits reached an unprecedented zenith.

In receiving the treasured cauldron bestowed by Heaven, the Yellow Emperor set his eyes upon the celestial movements. He employed the divinatory yarrow stalks to calculate the calendar, foretelling the arrival of seasonal markers and the precise moments of the day. Appointing capable ministers such as Feng Hou, Li Mu, Chang Xian, and Da Hong to govern the people, he harmonized the laws of nature with the principles of man. By heeding the immutable laws of the heavens and the four seasons, he discerned the subtle transitions of yin and yang — embodying this equilibrium, he adopted the timeless Yin‐Yang insignia as a testament to the balanced forces governing life and death. He expounded on the principles of mortality and perpetuity, prescribed the timely sowing of the myriad grains and plants, domesticated birds, beasts, and insects, and calibrated the courses of the sun, moon, and stars to institute a precise calendar. Ever mindful of the needs of his subjects, he judiciously allocated the earth’s bounty — soil, stone, gold, and jade — and conscientiously managed the resources of water, fire, and timber. His reign was marked by both physical and moral rigor, and the celestial omens signified his divinely sanctioned rule, for the very hue of the earth — yellow — became his namesake.

The Yellow Emperor was the progenitor of twenty-five sons, fourteen of whom established their own noble lineages. Residing on Xuanyuan Mountain, he married the daughter of the Xiling State, known as Leizu, who became his principal consort. Leizu bore him two sons, whose descendants would come to govern the realm: one named Xuanyao (also known as Qingyang), who was enfeoffed as a feudal lord and resided by the riverside; and the other named Changyi, who too was raised to lordship and settled along the banks of Ruoshui. Changyi wed a daughter of the Shushan clan, named Changpu, and she bore him a son, Gaoyang — a man of saintly virtues. After the death of the Yellow Emperor, his remains were interred on Qiaoshan, and his grandson, Gaoyang (Changyi’s son), ascended the throne as Emperor Zhuanxu.

Emperor Zhuanxu Gaoyang, the grandson of the Yellow Emperor and son of Changyi, was a man of composed resolve and strategic acumen, possessing both insight and wisdom. He harnessed the land’s bounty by cultivating crops and livestock, aligning his governance with the natural cycles of the seasons, and formulating rituals in harmony with the spirits and the shifting energies of the five elements. In his quest to civilize the myriad peoples, he purified his own being to duly honor the deities. His campaigns carried him north to Youling, south to Jiaozha, west to the flowing sands, and east to the ancient Panmu. Wherever the sun and moon shone their light, every creature and deity — great or small — came under his benevolent rule. Zhuanxu begot a son named Qiongchan; following Zhuanxu’s demise, Xuanyao’s grandson Gaoxin ascended the throne as Emperor Ku.

Emperor Ku Gaoxin, the great-grandson of the Yellow Emperor through the line of Xuanyao, was himself a scion of noble temperament. His father, Jiaoji, and grandfather, Xuanyao, had not ascended the imperial throne; it was only with Gaoxin that the mantle was finally assumed — Gaoxin being a nephew to Zhuanxu. Endowed with an innate luminescence from birth — his very first cry heralded his destined name — he dispensed benevolence and favor broadly, often placing the needs of his people above his own. With acute senses that pierced both distance and subtlety, he was ever attuned to the urgencies of his subjects. Following the will of Heaven and the yearnings of the common folk, his benevolence was matched by a dignified authority, his character both gentle and steadfast. Cultivating a frugal yet judicious use of the land’s produce, he imparted wisdom on the populace and meticulously calculated the celestial cycles to govern the seasons. Ever mindful of the spirits, he rendered them due reverence. His stately bearing and noble morals, combined with timely actions and gentlemanly comportment, brought the entire realm into harmonious submission — from the rain that nourished the fields to the winds that stirred the farthest provinces.

Emperor Ku married the daughter of the Chenfeng clan, bearing a son named Fangxun; he also wed a daughter of the Jūzī clan, who bore a son named Zhi. Upon Emperor Ku’s passing, Zhi succeeded him, but his tenure was lackluster, prompting Fangxun to ultimately ascend as Emperor Yao.

Emperor Yao, whose name was in fact Fangxun, was the paragon of benevolence and sagacity. His very presence was as warming as the midday sun, and his exalted countenance as all-encompassing as the vast clouds that blanketed the earth. Despite his opulence, he remained unassuming; his high station was met not with indulgence but with restraint. Adorned with a yellow cap and dressed in stately black garments, he traversed the realm in a scarlet carriage drawn by white steeds. His respectful demeanor towards those of virtuous character fostered harmony within his own clan for nine generations, while his judicious selection of ministers ensured that the myriad states and feudal lords coexisted in peace.

Emperor Yao commissioned the sage Yi and the dignified He, following the celestial dictates and the observed courses of the sun, moon, and stars, to devise a precise calendar and instruct the people on the proper seasons for their labors. He further entrusted Yi Zhong, residing in the region of Yuyi — known as Yanggu — to greet the sunrise with due reverence and to systematically coordinate the spring sowing. On the day of the vernal equinox, when day and night were in perfect equilibrium, the early-dusk star of the Vermilion Bird’s seven lodgings emerged from the true south, marking the heart of spring. At that time, the people dispersed to labor and the creatures commenced their mating. Similarly, He Shu, dwelling in Nanjiao, meticulously arranged the summer agricultural activities. At the summer solstice, when daylight was at its zenith, the heart star of the Azure Dragon’s seven mansions (also known as the Great Fire) first dimmed in the true south, signifying the fullness of summer. In the west, He Zhong, from the land known as Meigu in the region of Xitu, bid the sun farewell at dusk and systematically orchestrated the autumn harvest; on the autumnal equinox, when darkness and light were equal, the nascent dimming of the Void Star among the seven lodgings of the Black Tortoise in the true south denoted mid-autumn. Finally, He Shu, stationed in the northern region of Youdu, oversaw the winter preparations; at the winter solstice, when daylight was at its briefest, the initial fading of the Mao (or Mau) star from the White Tiger’s seven mansions in the true south marked the depth of winter. Thus, in a year comprising 366 days — with an intercalary month inserted to realign the seasons — Emperor Yao earnestly exhorted his ministers to diligently discharge their responsibilities.

In a moment of introspection, Yao queried, “Who among you is fit to inherit my legacy?” Fangqi retorted, “Your son, Dan Zhu, demonstrates an aptitude for governance.” Yao rebuffed, “Bah! Dan Zhu is a man of foolishness and cruelty — he is unworthy.” He then inquired, “Is there another candidate?” Huan Dou proposed, “Gonggong, having rallied the people and achieved notable feats, might be suitable.” Yao dismissed him as well, remarking, “Gonggong may be eloquent, yet his heart is misguided, and his semblance of reverence is but a ruse to deceive the heavens.” Despairing over the rampant floods that engulfed the high mountains and low hills alike, leaving the populace in despair, Yao sought one who could restore order. The consensus soon fell upon Gun. Yet Yao cautioned, “Gun, in defying the mandate of Heaven and wreaking havoc among our kin, is unfit.” Despite the reservations of the four mountains, they persisted in their advocacy, arguing, “Let us appoint him provisionally, and if he fails, we shall dismiss him.” Yielding to their counsel, Yao appointed Gun, who labored for nine years against the deluge without success. In his seventieth year of reign, Yao again solicited suggestions from his ministers regarding a successor who could abide by the mandate of Heaven. The ministers confessed their own unworthiness and then proposed that among all the ministers, both eminent and reclusive, there was one — a solitary man wandering among the common people — named Yu Shun.

Yao mused, “Indeed, I have heard of him. What sort of man is he?” The ministers explained, “He is the son of a blind man; though his father was unenlightened, his mother obstinate, and his brother haughty, Shun maintained familial harmony, fulfilled his filial duties, and managed his household with exemplary rectitude.” Convinced, Yao arranged marriages for his two daughters to Shun, observing his virtue through their conduct. Shun respectfully enjoined them to lower their pride and abide by the proprieties befitting their station. Pleased with his measured approach, Yao entrusted him with the post of Minister of Works, charged with the delicate task of harmonizing the five cardinal relationships — filial piety, maternal benevolence, fraternal affection, respectful obedience among siblings, and dutiful piety toward one’s offspring — which the people uniformly embraced. Shun was further incorporated into the administrative apparatus, resulting in a streamlined governance that inspired both distant lords and local officials alike. He received dignitaries at the four gates of the Ming Hall, ensuring that harmony reigned at every threshold. Even when dispatched into the wilds — into forests, rugged mountains, and over turbulent rivers — Shun navigated the perils of storm and thunder with unwavering resolve. Admiring his brilliance and moral rectitude, Yao ultimately invited Shun to explicate his philosophy: “For three years, your meticulous planning and steadfast adherence to your word have been evident. Now, ascend to the imperial throne.” Shun demurred, modestly asserting that his virtues were yet insufficient to bear such a burden. On the first day of the first lunar month, in the ancestral temple of Wenzu (Yao’s forefather), Yao ceremoniously bestowed the imperial mandate upon him — thus, the legacy of the ancient sovereigns passed into the hands of Shun.

At this juncture, as Yao’s advanced years compelled him to entrust the affairs of state to Shun, the latter was charged with the task of observing the constellations — especially the North Star — and scrutinizing the motions of the sun, moon, and the five elemental deities of metal, wood, water, fire, and earth for any anomalies. Shun then conducted provisional rites to honor the Supreme Deity and, by burning offerings upon fire, to venerate the cyclical majesty of the four seasons. He also performed remote rites to pay homage to the revered mountains and rivers, and universally honored the myriad gods. Gathering the jade tokens — of various ranks ranging from dukes to commoners — that attested to the authority of the feudal lords, he selected auspicious months and days to summon the ministers of the four directions, distributing the tokens accordingly. In February, Shun embarked on an eastern inspection tour; upon reaching Taishan, he offered sacrifices by burning firewood to honor the Eastern Deity, and performed remote rites to venerate the famed mountains and rivers. Subsequently, he convened with the eastern feudal lords to recalibrate the seasonal cycles, adjust the alternation of the lunar months and solar terms, standardize musical pitches, and harmonize the measures of length, volume, and weight. He refined the ceremonial protocols for auspicious, inauspicious, diplomatic, military, and celebratory occasions — mandating that feudal lords employ five types of jade tokens and three varieties of silk ribbons, that high-ranking officials present lambs or wild geese as tributes, and that scholars offer pheasant remains as tokens of deference, with all tokens to be returned after the ceremony. In May, he inspected the southern territories; in August, the western lands; and in November, the northern regions — all in a manner akin to his initial eastern tour. Upon his return, he conducted rites at the ancestral and paternal temples, offering a bull in sacrifice. Henceforth, every five years he embarked on an inspection tour, during which, for four successive years, the feudal lords made their timely pilgrimages to the capital. Shun expounded his governance to the lords, evaluating their achievements with clarity and rewarding meritorious service with chariots, horses, and fine garments. He then initiated the division of the realm into twelve provinces, undertook the dredging of waterways, and stipulated that the law should be executed in accordance with established penalties — favoring banishment over the more brutal measures of branding, mutilation, castration, or beheading. In administrative affairs, officials administered corporal punishment with whips, while academic institutions employed rulers’ sticks for discipline, with fines in gold redeemable as atonement. Calamities borne of natural disasters were pardoned, yet those who obstinately persisted in maleficence were duly penalized. “Exercise utmost caution,” he warned, “and apply judicial retribution with judicious restraint!”

Though Huan Dou had once recommended Gonggong — only to be rebuffed by Yao — he was nonetheless trialed as a workman; as forewarned, Gonggong proved unruly and corrupt. Similarly, while the four mountains had advocated for Gun to govern the floods, Yao’s initial reluctance was eventually overridden; yet Gun’s efforts over nine years yielded no tangible results, leading the officials to deem him unsuitable. In the troubled regions of the Jiang-Huai basin and Jingzhou, the Sanmiao repeatedly incited rebellion. On returning from an inspection tour, Shun reported to Emperor Yao, imploring that Gonggong be exiled to Youling to reform the customs of the northern tribes; Huan Dou be banished to the remote highlands to civilize the southern barbarians; the Sanmiao be relocated to the Three Perilous Mountains to reform the western tribes; and Gun be exiled to Yushan to ameliorate the practices of the eastern peoples. With these four malefactors duly punished, harmony was restored throughout the realm. After seventy years on the throne, Yao, now of advanced age, entrusted the governance of the state to Shun for a trial period before ultimately conveying the imperial mandate to him. Yao relinquished the throne twenty‐eight years before his death. The people mourned his passing as though they had lost their very parents; for three years, no court music was performed, as a tribute to Emperor Yao’s memory. Aware that his son Dan Zhu was unworthy of the imperial legacy and would only bring calamity upon the world, Yao reasoned that bestowing the mandate upon Shun would benefit all, whereas an inheritance by Dan Zhu would only serve his own interests at the expense of the realm. “I cannot, in the final analysis, allow the suffering of the many for the gain of one,” he proclaimed, and so the imperial mandate was ultimately conferred upon Shun. After Yao’s passing, following a three-year period of mourning, Shun briefly ceded the throne to Dan Zhu before retreating to the southern banks of the Nanhe River. Feudal lords and litigants alike bypassed Dan Zhu, flocking instead to Shun, and the accolades of virtue were sung in his honor. Shun himself declared, “This is the will of Heaven,” and so he journeyed to the capital and ascended the imperial throne, becoming Emperor Shun.

Yu Shun, whose personal name was Zhonghua, was born to a lineage marked by hardship. His father, Gu Sou, descended from Qiaoniu, whose own father was Gou Wang, followed by Jingkang and then Qiongchan — the latter being the son of Emperor Zhuanxu. From Changyi to Shun spanned seven generations; in the interim between Qiongchan and Shun, the family’s status had dwindled to that of commoners. Gu Sou, Shun’s father, was blind; after the death of Shun’s birth mother, he remarried and begot a son named Xiang — a child of unruly temperament. Gu Sou favored his stepchild and persistently schemed to dispose of Shun; yet time and again, Shun evaded their murderous designs. Even minor transgressions were met with severe punishment, yet Shun remained unwavering in his filial piety, dutifully serving his father, stepmother, and her brother, his loyalty and diligence growing ever deeper with each passing day.

A native of Jizhou, Shun toiled in the fields of Lishan, fished in the Lei Marsh, fashioned pottery by the banks of the Yellow River, produced household wares in Shouqiu, and even engaged in trade along the routes of Fuxia. Despite his father’s ignorance, his mother’s obstinacy, and his brother Xiang’s rebellious nature — all conspiring to end his life — Shun conducted himself with unwavering respect, adhering scrupulously to the filial duties, maintaining brotherly affection, and never straying from the righteous path. When his would-be assassins could not locate him, he was ever-present when his presence was required, faithfully attending to every need.

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